The essay further investigates ENODA’s integrated technological solutions as a case study in how innovation can “deconstrain” the AC electricity grid, increasing its capacity, stability, and efficiency.

By examining economic and environmental costs across both markets, this study provides a more holistic understanding of Poland’s electricity sector and the systemic challenges that must be addressed to achieve true decarbonisation

This year at BETD 2025, ENODA presented our whitepaper ‘The Hidden Cost of Balancing in Germany’, exploring the generation fuel mix in the German balancing market and its associated carbon emissions, in comparison with the German wholesale market.

General-Purpose Technologies (GPTs) and General-Purpose Systems (GPSs) are transformative innovations, such as electricity, telephony, the internet, and now AI, that reshape entire economies and societies. This article focusses the complex interactions of technological features, infrastructure, market forces, and social behaviour that are required for their widespread adoption.